Plunder of comparatively civilized provinces.

The invaders, though often defeated, were as continually reinforced by new emigrants, tempted by the rich rewards to be obtained by the sack of wealthy cities and the plunder of comparatively civilized provinces. The city of Arsen was the principal object of one of these attacks. It had long been the great city of Eastern Asia Minor, the centre of Asiatic trade, the depot for merchandise transmitted overland from Persia and India to the Eastern empire and Europe generally. It was full of warehouses belonging to Armenians and Syrians, and is said to have contained 800 churches and

300,0 people. Having failed to capture the city, Togrul’s general succeeded in burning it. The destruction of so much wealth struck a fatal blow at Armenian commerce, and was the first of a long series of acts of destruction by which the Turks have marked the whole course of their dealings with Indo- Germanie peoples, and have converted some of the richest and most populous cities and provinces in the world into comparative deserts. The Armenians fought bravely even after the destruction of Arsen. Togrul’s army met them in great force in 10IS, and a battle was fought, which, though indecisive, compelled the general to change his plan of attack upon Asia Minor. In the same year Togrul in person invaded the provinces of the Emperor of Constantinople.

The independent principality of Kars was attacked by him, and the Armenians were defeated, but in an attack upon Manzikert Togrul was compelled to retire into Persia. In 1052 he again invaded the empire, but the Greeks, with the aid of the “Wirings, or, as they are generally called by the Byzantine writers, the Varangians, marched to meet him in such force that the invaders did not venture to give battle. Eight years later he again attempted an invasion of the empire on the frontier of Mesopotamia, but without any decisive result.

Togrul had, however, obtained a success which added He becomes greatly to his influence over his followers and over caliph. Mahometans generally. There were rival claimants for the caliphate, one of whom resided at Bagdad, the other in Egypt. Togrul threw the weight of his influence in favor of the Bagdad claimant, defeated and executed the chief of a rebellion against him, and then contrived to have himself named as the temporal substitute of the caliph lie thus became the Commander of the Faithful and Protector of the Mussulmans. Togrul died in 1003.

His successor was Alparslan

His successor was Alparslan, “the Strong Lion,” who reigned from 1063 to 1073. It is unnecessary for my purpose to attempt to follow in detail the career of this sultan—a career which was one long series of attacks upon the dominions of the empire in Asia Minor and upon the neighboring states of Georgia and Armenia balkan tours. The latter had developed a large amount of industry, commerce, and civilization. Ani, the capital of Armenia, was taken by storm in 106L The Prince of Kars, in consequence of its capture, made a degrading submission, and was allowed to retain his principality as a vassal under the sultan. Shortly afterwards he ceded his territories to the emperor in exchange for the city of Tzamandos.

The inhabitants of Kars, feeling that there was no security against the next Moslem invasion, fled westwards into Cappadocia or southwards to their brethren, who were yet to make a bold stand for independence under their native princes. In 1070 Alparslan besieged and captured Manzikert. Various small principalities were established, the rulers of which endeavored unsuccessfully to stem the advance of the Seljuks.

The barriers of the border states being thus broken down, They nttnek the Turkish hordes began to pour into the dominions Asia Minor of the emperor in an irresistible flood. The condition of Asia Minor offered a strong temptation to the in- its present vapers. We know it to-day as a country which condition. does no£ contain a single city except Smyrna that would be considered as of third or fourth rank in England, France, or Germany.

Smyrna is, indeed, rich and flourishing because of its irrepressible Greek population, and of its having had for centuries large colonies of Franks who, by means of the capitulations, are not under the curse of Turkish rule. Elsewhere the fertile districts of Asia Minor lie idle for want of roads to convey the produce to market. The absence of security for life and property makes the people careless about producing more than is necessary for the supply of their scanty needs. Famine, in some districts, recurs periodically, while there is abundance at no great distance. Everywhere the people are poverty-stricken and wretched.